The 7 coordinating conjunctions — memorized with one word
For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So. These join independent clauses. Use a comma before FANBOYS when joining two complete sentences. "I studied, but I still failed."
F
For — explains reason
A
And — adds information
N
Nor — negative addition
B
But — shows contrast
O
Or — presents alternatives
Y
Yet — shows contrast (like but)
S
So — shows result
🗣️ Grammar
Subject + Verb + Object = SVO (English default)
Word Order
English is SVO — most world languages are SOV
"The cat (S) ate (V) the fish (O)." English is SVO. Japanese, Korean, Turkish are SOV (Subject-Object-Verb). Arabic is VSO. Understanding default word order helps learn any language faster.
🗣️ Grammar
Transitive = needs an object. Intransitive = doesn't.
Verb Types
Transitive vs intransitive verbs — a one-sentence rule
"She kicked the ball" — kicked is transitive (needs "the ball"). "She slept" — slept is intransitive (complete without an object). Some verbs can be both depending on usage.
🗣️ Grammar
Affect = verb. Effect = noun. (usually)
Affect vs Effect
The most confused word pair in English grammar
"Stress affects health" (verb). "The effect of stress on health" (noun). Memory trick: RAVEN — Remember Affect is a Verb, Effect is a Noun. Exceptions exist but this works 95% of the time.
🗣️ Grammar
Active: Subject does. Passive: Subject receives.
Active vs Passive Voice
Active vs passive voice — spot it and fix it instantly
Active: "The dog bit the man." Passive: "The man was bitten by the dog." Passive voice uses a form of "to be" + past participle. Academic writing prefers active voice unless the agent is unknown.
Comma with Coordinating Conjunctions
Comma rules: FANBOYS join independent clauses. Use comma before the conjunction.
Comma with Coordinating Conjunctions
When to use a comma before for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so
Two independent clauses joined by FANBOYS need a comma before the conjunction: 'I wanted coffee, but the café was closed.' No comma needed if the second part is NOT an independent clause: 'I wanted coffee but couldn't find any.' Test: can each part stand alone as a sentence?
Apostrophe Rules
Apostrophes: possession (John's book) or contraction (it's = it is). Its = possessive, no apostrophe.
Apostrophe Rules
Two uses of the apostrophe — and the its/it's trap
Possession: add 's to singular nouns (the dog's bone). Plural nouns ending in s: add apostrophe after (the dogs' bones). Contraction: it's = it is. Its (no apostrophe) = possessive pronoun. 'The dog wagged its tail. It's a happy dog.' Substitute 'it is' — if it works, use it's.
Run-On Sentences
Run-on sentences: two independent clauses joined without proper punctuation. Fix: period, semicolon, or FANBOYS.
Run-On Sentences
How to identify and fix the most common sentence error
Run-on: 'I was tired I went to bed.' Fix three ways: period ('I was tired. I went to bed.'), semicolon ('I was tired; I went to bed.'), coordinating conjunction ('I was tired, so I went to bed.'). Comma splice: using only a comma — also wrong.
Parallel Structure
Parallel structure: items in a list or comparison must have the same grammatical form
Parallel Structure
Matching grammatical forms in lists and comparisons
Wrong: 'I like running, to swim, and cycling.' Right: 'I like running, swimming, and cycling.' Parallelism with correlative conjunctions: 'either...or,' 'not only...but also,' 'both...and' — each side must match. Lack of parallel structure is a very common grammar error on standardized tests.
Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement
Pronoun agreement: singular antecedent needs singular pronoun. 'Everyone' and 'each' are singular.
Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement
The pronoun must match its antecedent in number and gender
Wrong: 'Everyone should bring their pencils.' (Everyone is singular.) Correct: 'Everyone should bring his or her pencil.' Or rewrite plural: 'All students should bring their pencils.' Indefinite pronouns that are ALWAYS singular: everyone, everyone, each, either, neither, one.
Semicolons and Colons
Semicolons join two independent clauses without a conjunction. Colons introduce a list or explanation.
Semicolons and Colons
Two punctuation marks students avoid — but shouldn't
Semicolon: 'I was tired; I went to bed.' — both sides must be independent clauses. Can also separate list items that contain commas. Colon: introduces what follows — a list, explanation, or quotation. 'She had one goal: to graduate.' What follows the colon elaborates on what came before.
Dangling and Misplaced Modifiers
Dangling modifier: 'Walking home, the rain started.' — the rain wasn't walking. Fix: 'Walking home, I got caught in the rain.'
Dangling and Misplaced Modifiers
Modifiers must clearly attach to what they describe
Dangling modifier: the word being modified isn't in the sentence. 'Having studied all night, the exam seemed easy.' (The exam didn't study.) Fix: 'Having studied all night, I found the exam easy.' Misplaced modifier: modifier is in the wrong position. 'She almost drove her kids to school every day.' (Almost every day vs almost drove)
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🎓 Common Exam Questions
Q: What are the FANBOYS and when do you use a comma before them?
A: FANBOYS = For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So — the seven coordinating conjunctions. Use a comma before a FANBOYS conjunction ONLY when it joins two independent clauses (two complete sentences). "I studied hard, but I failed the exam." Both sides could stand alone — comma required. No comma when the conjunction joins two verbs sharing the same subject: "I studied hard but failed the exam." Quick test: can both sides of the conjunction stand alone as complete sentences? If yes, comma before FANBOYS. If no, no comma needed.
Q: Explain the apostrophe rules — possessives vs contractions and the its/it's trap.
A: Apostrophes have two uses only. (1) Contractions: replacing omitted letters. It's = it is or it has. Don't = do not. They're = they are. (2) Possessives: showing ownership. The dog's bone (singular). The dogs' bones (plural — apostrophe after the s). The critical trap: IT'S vs ITS. It's = it is (contraction). Its = belonging to it (possessive — NO apostrophe, like his/her). Test: substitute "it is" into the sentence. If it makes sense, use it's. If not, use its. "The dog wagged its tail" — "the dog wagged it is tail" makes no sense → its. Never use apostrophes for plural nouns. "Two cats" not "two cat's."
Q: What is a run-on sentence and how do you fix one?
A: A run-on sentence joins two independent clauses without proper punctuation. The most common type is the comma splice — joining two independent clauses with only a comma. "I love grammar, it is fascinating." Fix options: (1) Period — make two sentences. "I love grammar. It is fascinating." (2) Semicolon — "I love grammar; it is fascinating." (3) Coordinating conjunction with comma — "I love grammar, and it is fascinating." (4) Subordinating conjunction — "I love grammar because it is fascinating." The fused sentence has no punctuation at all: "I love grammar it is fascinating." Same fixes apply. Key: identify where one independent clause ends and another begins.
Q: What is parallel structure and why does it matter?
A: Parallel structure means items in a list or comparison must use the same grammatical form. Wrong: "She likes running, to swim, and cycling." The forms mix (gerund, infinitive, gerund). Right: "She likes running, swimming, and cycling." All gerunds. Right: "She likes to run, to swim, and to cycle." All infinitives. Parallel structure applies to: lists (all nouns, all verbs, all phrases), comparisons (comparing like to like), correlative conjunctions (both/and, either/or, neither/nor, not only/but also). "Not only did she study hard, but also she worked." Wrong — the subjects are in different positions. "Not only did she study hard, but she also worked." Better. The test: read each item in the list separately with the same opener — does each work grammatically?
Q: What are dangling and misplaced modifiers — and how do you fix them?
A: A modifier must be placed immediately next to what it modifies, or the sentence becomes confusing or absurd. Misplaced modifier: modifier is in the wrong position. "She almost drove her children to school every day." (She drove them almost every day — not almost drove.) Fix: "She drove her children to school almost every day." Dangling modifier: the thing being modified is not in the sentence at all. "Running to catch the bus, the briefcase was dropped." The briefcase was not running — the person was. Fix: "Running to catch the bus, he dropped the briefcase." Rule: a modifying phrase at the start of a sentence must modify the subject of the main clause that follows it. If the subject and the modifier don't match, the modifier is dangling.